Rastus wrote:

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Yo Shawnee,

Respectfully, how is it that we all live in different time-zones, & whilst it's morning as I write this with the sun out, & yet it's dark states-side ??? If the world was flat, we'd all share the same daylight hours.

As for the flat earth & UN depictions, they're simply arranged so as to see everything on the one-plane / page...And mathematically speaking, these maps will still work as long as you start to reduce the calculations once beyond the equator.

And why should we have a flat earth, when every other planet elsewhere is a sphere ???...

I agree that there's a lot going on in antarctica, as proved by my links to John Warner IV, & Eric J Hecker...

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TtY5iISsMAY

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3YHR9JqzC1w

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 No the UN, NATO and many others that use the flat earth is an exact 100% copy of the earlier flat earth map, not the Gleason one.

Neat thing I found on GPS. My researching "things we been told" is a different approach. For instance, watching air traffic tracking, easily done. Same with shipping. Now with air travel there is something very odd. On a flat earth distance between 2 points on land are the same, it differs in the oceans between flat or round. GPS tracks every plane but what is shown is ODD! Over land one can see take destination to destination AND the inbetween route. Over oceans they show the start and finish and no route inbetween, like they disappear from gps and reappear. Anyone can watch this airtraffic but they do not want one to see the actual difference in flight paths. The extent they go to just to preserve the lie.

The other planets are not spheres, they are discs attached to the rotation firmament/dome same as the stars. Nasa photos? Bullshit.

Look at the 2014 nasa photo of neptune then at the 2006 nasa "provided photo". Identical! It's a gaseous planet, it will never look the same twice. Can't make this shit up.

There is an awesome NASA photo of the surface of mars by the rover. Next to it is a 100% exact dead ringer pic, taken in the Mohave desert with a red filter. Can't make this shit up.

Have you seen the pictures of Spielberg and several other producers working with nasa on the moon landing? Star trek was 90 episodes produced before the moon fake landing. Don't think hollywood could fake a moon landing? Think again. The lunar module, president were all at Clovis, just like they faked at the "dime movie"

This vid is the son of a security man at Clovis during the filming relating the story on his death bed. 

 

The lunar landing was filmed at Clovis afb. Sand and cement dust made the landscape, then was removed

You know... most basic movie channels include the Sci-Fi channel...

Just in case you guys run out of 13 part You-Tube series and small 100 page documents to peruse...

Although I do respect your preference for independent artists!

 

 

Stellar007 wrote:

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You know... most basic movie channels include the Sci-Fi channel...

Just in case you guys run out of 13 part You-Tube series and small 100 page documents to peruse...

Although I do respect your preference for independent artists!

 

 

 

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 It's flat bro.

This thread is getting pretty heavy...

I been on the roof in a mad dash against time to finish needed repairs before the weather goes South in the next month or so... I may be hit and miss between then as I don't have any helpers because everyone is too good for manual labor anymore.

I've decided to make one more repair to the roof, this time purchasing new shingles and tar paper to replace a larger 4 foot by 10 foot section... pretty much at least a foot out from the last damage that was done during a very bad wind storm. Even got some roof tar and I'm going to do it right and trim back all them tree branches you see behind me with my new 14 foot battery powered pole-chain-saw. 

But that's not all folks... as most of you know from the V8 cafe that's not even CLOSE to the work that needs to be done in a short time! I'm not going to get into it all here again, but it's a lot! Been a rough day to say the least.

I'll try to take some more photos of my progress from time to time.

Oh, and Shawnee - the world is round and it is spinning! Every time I get on my roof it takes at least 5 minutes for the vertigo to wear off... not even kidding! After that I'm walking all over that roof like a seasoned roofer! 

I'm doing just the repairs on the roof, trimming and removal of the old 80% furnace chimney... along with a few vents for the dryer, hot water heater and new 97% HE furnace - all in the newer PVC. Some of the old stuff it rotten clean in half! All the current stuff weighs a ton as it's cast iron from the 1950's! My attic and wood will be very happy to have all these heavy pipes no longer resting on them! The new PVC is almost weightless compated to all the cast iron. 

I have been getting OUTRAGOUS quotes lately! I'm not even kidding! These people are smoking crack yo! I'll fix this damn roof until they have to sober up! Had to pay $31 DOLLARS for a bundle of new shingles today! $31!!! Used to be $12-$15! And that's just for the run of the mill Lowes stuff, not even fancy!

Glad I already have most everything else that I need, save for a small amount of lumber. I was honestly planning on farming this entire roof out but after the quotes I got, compared with what I was getting pre-COVID... there is no way! NO FUCKING WAY.

Anyway, I'm beat... Prolly gonna go see if Melissa posted anything and then go to bed... My youngest kid is going to Hawaii tomorrow, so I get to visit Detroit Metro first thing in the morning to drop him off. 

 

I'll tell you what my destiny is... cutting down some tree branches and cleaning the garage! LOL

Got the roof repair done today just in time before the rain started coming down. I have the entire attic strung with lights now so it's nice and bright, plus I picked up a Streamlight Stinger 2020 flash lights @ 2000 lumens for them spots that need a little more light. 

I been monitoring the repair and it would seem all is bone dry! It's supposed to rain all night so I'll check agian tomorrow morning. I did a pretty good job if I do say so myself! Even put down new tar paper in the area and a foot beyond where I replaced the section. Looks good, although you can tell it's a repair by the shade difference in the older faded shingles. It's ok because really this roof only has to last until I'm done knocking down that nasty chimney you see in the photo above, along with running new vents for appliances and sewers in PVC. It would be foolish to do a complete roof until all the holes have been cut and vent stacks installed. When you do a complete you more or less want to have all your stuff finalized to ensure the best seal. Flashing, vents and other such protruding items always seal better that way it seems.

So that's one thing off my list until next year... I get these trees handled and the garage cleaned I can start moving forward on two fronts. Still have plans for the lean to, but I literally just watched someone I know go to the dealership today and buy a new $55,000 truck! I don't know how people do it! And that was just a 1500 Silverado 2022! I have decided to hold off on buying a truck myself and instead ordered a trailer hitch kit for the Lincoln Zephyer for $250 with hitch and harness... I'll probably blow another $800-$1200 on a new small utility trailer and have the same bed space as a truck but for only $1050-$1450... That's a savings of, well... $53,000 if I bought a new one myself, or at least $10-$12,000 if I bought a 2010-up truck with over 100,000 miles! I can still get some real rough $1500 trucks but they need lots of work and I just don't have that kind of time right now. The used and new car market is literally INSANE right now... it's so bad I'm scared to even say it can't get any worse because it proably would! It would really suck to have to buy a new car right now unless you absolutly had to.

But I must admit, there is nothing like a brand new car or truck! Until the 1st payment comes due! LOL

Seems like I get one thing done and three more pop out of nowhere! Just rolling with the blows at this point stay'n alive!

 

No doubt a lease or buy for a company would help to lower your business' taxable income but it's still an expense for the business. But like you say, if you're making so much that it's just going to be taken in taxes, the money would be much better spent on a vehicle that can help the business make even MORE money the next year! LOL, at that point, why not look into a Gulf Stream! LOL

I didn't buy a new truck if that's what you mean... I just helped the person get there and fill out the paperwork. Naturally in the process I got a good look at the numbers, the REAL NUMBERS - not the numbers they lure you in with in the advertisements. 

It's big money to even lease! You're talking $10k down for a 24 month lease with ultra-low miles (10,000 per year) and a monthly payment of $285! And that is with STELLAR CREDIT and either working for GM or being related to someone working for GM! If you have less than flawless credit that payment changes to the mid $400's! And that's still with $10k down! Keep in mind this is a 2022 Silverado 1500 with a four cylinder turbo-charged engine and 4X4... On a buy it's anywhere from $670-$800 a month for 72 months and that's even with $10k down. You wan't a V8 or a nice trail package? It's looking closer to $70,000 out the door! Payments in the 1000's of dollars for a buy and lease costs cresting well over $700 a month! 

None of that includes insurance, or yearly plates and renewals. 

 

Stellar007 wrote:

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You know... most basic movie channels include the Sci-Fi channel...

Just in case you guys run out of 13 part You-Tube series and small 100 page documents to peruse...

Although I do respect your preference for independent artists!

 

 

 

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 Cut cable years back. TV hasn't been on in a year and that was dvd or stream movies. 

BTW, the earth is flat and the dome/firmament is spinning, not earth.

Shawnee & his wife have their POV, nothing wrong with that...I do hope that they both get around to watching this, flat earth or not, it's great viewing imo !!! For the record Shawnee, within the first 10-15 minutes, you'll learn what all the visits & bases in Antarctica were actually about...And the rest follows quite a good narrative, with lots of good-food-for-thought, have no doubt Sir !

And as for Mr.Dedrickson, people that high-up in the gov't will have little-to-no information in a shyte-hole such as the internet, which needs much discernment...See what you can find out about Rear Admiral Rico Botta of the US-Navy for instance...

 

-- Edited by Rastus on Thursday 22nd of September 2022 01:23:18 AM

Stellar007 wrote:

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The earth is round Shawnee!

 

I guess this thread has been taken over by the "old-folk"....

 

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 Nah, the ones who can question things and think for them selves took it over. Proof is in front of your eyes. It's flat! Got a funny vid where the host plays round and flat earther, and when he puts these sunglasses on he is a round earther and calls his guests flattards. Funny vid.

Stellar007 wrote:

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This thread is getting pretty heavy...

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 Great tune. 

Shawnee_B wrote:

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 Be watching it tonight with Candy. Back to the hosp for IV therapy in a few min.

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IV therapy? Is everything okay?

Shawnee_B wrote:

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Stellar007 wrote:

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Shawnee_B wrote:

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 Be watching it tonight with Candy. Back to the hosp for IV therapy in a few min.

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IV therapy? Is everything okay?

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 Yes thank you. Nasty infection cipro wouldn't touch. 4 days down, feeling much better, 3 to go.

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Great news Shawnee, I hope you both enjoy the film Sir ! There's much to consider within it !

Yo,

Here's one for Shawnee, though I think he may have been waiting for others to look around & chime-in perhaps...

pioneersofflight.si.edu/content/first-flight-around-world

Rastus wrote:

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Yo,

Here's one for Shawnee, though I think he may have been waiting for others to look around & chime-in perhaps...

pioneersofflight.si.edu/content/first-flight-around-world

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 Circum huh. I questioned that. Magellan sailed around the world and that is exactly what he did too, just like these aviators. 

Many theories fit and work on both FE and RE models, this is one. However what works on FE far outweighs RE.

Here's his trip on FE, "gleason map". 

 

BTW, nice house Sell. Like the stone, woodwork, theme. Good job. Always said I would live in brick or stone. It's brick finally.

Yo,

Too bad about the internet loss Shawnee, but glad you're back with us ! And don't forget to watch the film as posted above when you can !!!

* I know that the early sailors used the winds & currents to their advantage to travel, but these early fights by the US-Air Force, would have been using magnetic compasses to navigate with, especially through fog & poor weather etc etc...

A flat earth would not allow for the use of a magnetic compass, since the North-pole would be a point, & the South-pole would be a large circle around the North-pole point, meaning that it wouldn't work...

It also appears that in these flights, they traveled in a Westerly course, likely to prolong the daylight hours for longer flight-times...How could they determine this Westerly course, since in a flat-earth, as they traveled around, the compass would indicate that they're traveling in all directions as they go around, rendering it useless ?...

All magnets ( including the Earth ) have a North & a South pole...And once you can determine / pin-point these poles, it's easy to determine East & West, without needing the Sun...

Looking at the flat-earth maps, the Sun would rise in the South, & at mid-day be at due North, whilst setting in a perpetual South again...

 

Hmmm...

Some things should remain private I think...Now we'll have "everyone" filming persons having a leak at a cemetery...Flowers & grass need regular watering you know ;) !

** MAJOR HOME IMPROVEMENT UPDATE! **

I installed new hooks on the new door in the bathroom! You don't know how much you miss towel hooks on the back of your door until they are gone!

The bathroom floor gets slippery when wet!

Rastus wrote:

---

Yo,

Too bad about the internet loss Shawnee, but glad you're back with us ! And don't forget to watch the film as posted above when you can !!!

* I know that the early sailors used the winds & currents to their advantage to travel, but these early fights by the US-Air Force, would have been using magnetic compasses to navigate with, especially through fog & poor weather etc etc...

A flat earth would not allow for the use of a magnetic compass, since the North-pole would be a point, & the South-pole would be a large circle around the North-pole point, meaning that it wouldn't work...

It also appears that in these flights, they traveled in a Westerly course, likely to prolong the daylight hours for longer flight-times...How could they determine this Westerly course, since in a flat-earth, as they traveled around, the compass would indicate that they're traveling in all directions as they go around, rendering it useless ?...

All magnets ( including the Earth ) have a North & a South pole...And once you can determine / pin-point these poles, it's easy to determine East & West, without needing the Sun...

Looking at the flat-earth maps, the Sun would rise in the South, & at mid-day be at due North, whilst setting in a perpetual South again...

 

---

Yes the entire flat earth system (also dome and underneath) is a toroidal sphere of electro magnetism. It's covered awesome in a 5.6 hr 14 part vid, early parts. Awesomest vid ever, spectacular architecture shots. Old structures such as columns and donut discs on top, electromag energy back then. It's said Tesla "rediscovered" tesla energy, it had been used. Tesla energy is banned in UK but because of their grid probs are using it right now.

Yup, got more things done with no net. Didn't bother me. I'll post some of my doings in another thread later.

Don't see how compasses helped around antartica, I was told they don't work. I dunno. Yes, all points to NP in the center. Antartic is a 66000 mile ice ring all around. Anywhere on the earth, no matter you go east, west, so, no, if you out your needle so, you will hit ant.

The flights are hard to explain here. Below is Flat earth dave, aka "d.i.t.r.h. (deep in the rabbit hole) being interviewed by Imma b. Imma is a round earther and poses questions to Dave, all are explained easily. Dave is tops in the field. I wish you and Sell would watch this one. Covers the compass, sun, moon, many many things addressed in this vid. Like him he has hundreds more. flat earth dave.com

Remember, NO ONE has ever proved the earth is round, that is is spinning 1000mph and traveling at 66600 mph (there's that 666 nasa loves so much),,, gravity is still just a theory, it also has never been proven. Dropping an apple is not proof of gravity but of density/mass.

 

LOL !!!

Round earth or flat earth don't you just love tennis ???

This is how we're taught & why we have flat earth maps among other things lol !

Navigation

I INTRODUCTION

Navigation, science of determining the position of a ship, aircraft, or guided missile, and charting a course for guiding the craft safely and expeditiously from one point to another. The practice of navigation requires not only thorough knowledge of the science of navigation, but also considerable experience and judgement.

The science of nautical navigation is divided into four principal techniques: (1) so-called dead reckoning, which is derived from the phrase deduced reckoning, and estimates the approximate position of a craft solely from its course and speed; (2) piloting, which involves guiding the craft by frequent reference to geographical landmarks and navigational aids and by use of sounding; (3) celestial navigation, which uses the observation of celestial bodies to determine position on the surface of the Earth; and (4) electronic navigation, the most important and advanced system of navigation today, using radio and inertial electronic equipment. Aeronautical navigation is based on similar principles.

II POSITION AND DIRECTION ON THE EARTH'S SURFACE

The basic problems of navigating any craft involve the determination of its position and direction and the measurement of speed, distance, and time in proceeding from one point to another. Position on the Earth's surface can be defined in terms of an accepted set of coordinates, such as latitude and longitude. The direction of one place relative to another is usually indicated as the angular distance, measured in degrees of arc, from the direction of true north. Speed is often expressed in knots, or nautical miles per hour (1 knot = 1.853 km/hr or 1.15 mph). Altitude, or height above a reference level, is also important in aircraft navigation.

III MAP AND CHART PROJECTIONS

The initial planning and the end results of navigation are plotted on maps and charts. The nearly-spherical surface of the Earth is represented, or projected, on a plane surface upon which are superimposed the coordinates of latitude and longitude and also the desired features of surface and underwater topography. Charts are maps that accentuate the determination of position, direction, and distance, and stress points of interest to a navigator. Because no part of a sphere can be spread out flat without distortion, several projections have been developed to accommodate the navigator. Each projection has its own advantages and limitations and fulfils a specific need of the navigator.

The most widely used projection in navigation charts is the Mercator, named after the 16th-century Flemish mathematician and geographer Gerardus Mercator, who devised it. These charts portray the Earth's surface projected on a cylinder tangent to the surface of the Earth at the equator. When this cylinder is flattened out, the meridians, or lines of longitude, appear as equally spaced vertical lines and the parallels of latitude appear as parallel horizontal lines, spaced farther apart towards the poles. The Mercator projection, despite its great distortion, is popular because a course that follows a constant bearingthat is, makes a constant angle with the direction of northis represented by a straight line on the chart.

A navigator usually attempts to find the shortest route between two points; this can be accomplished by following a great-circle course. The great circle between two points on the surface of the Earth represents the arc of a plane intersecting the sphere at its centre and is the shortest path on the spherical surface. Great-circle courses can be determined directly from great-circle charts, but because it is impracticable for a ship to travel on an ever-changing bearing, the usual practice is to follow a series of chords that approximate the great circle. These chords are normally plotted on a Mercator chart.

Most of the navigable waters of the world have been surveyed accurately by the hydrographic services of the principal maritime nations so that reliable charts of the waters are usually available to the navigator.

The hydrographic services of various countries also publish almanacs and sailing directions to assist the navigator. Sailing directions are descriptive books containing detailed information on coastal waters, harbour facilities, navigation aids, winds, tides, currents, dangers to navigation, directions for approaching and entering restricted waters, and other data that cannot be shown on the chart of the area. Similar information is provided for aircraft, with indications of features, such as ground topology and airways, that are a function of altitude.

IV NAVIGATION INSTRUMENTS

Many instruments are employed today to facilitate navigation; some are relatively simple to use and others require extensive instruction. In the latter category are some of the modern electronic and mechanical devices.

Navigation instruments are designed to fix position, measure direction and distance, determine speed, measure the depth of water, assist in plotting on charts, and observe the weather elements. Sometimes various instruments are used simultaneously to yield the required information.

The magnetic compass is one of the oldest instruments used aboard ships. Although it has been generally supplanted by the gyrocompass on large ships, the magnetic compass retains its original role as the basic navigational instrument because it is not subject to electromechanical defects, and hence, on most seagoing ships, it is a necessary standby instrument. The magnetic compass serves as a directional device by aligning itself in the direction of the Earth's magnetic poles.

Because of the location of the magnetic poles, the needle of a compass will point to the geographical North Pole only in a few localities. In other places, it will point east or west of north. The difference in degrees between the direction of the compass needle and that of true north is called variation, or declination. For the convenience of navigators, the declination in many parts of the world has been measured, and charts have been prepared that show by isogonic linescurves connecting points of equal declinationthe approximate east or west declination for any place. On such charts, the line of zero declination, along which the compass points true north, is called an agonic line.

The gyrocompass, which uses a gyroscope as its directive element, indicates true north. The gyroscope in this compass is a rapidly rotating body, free to move about one or two axes, perpendicular to the axis of rotation and to each other. Control elements are added to the gyroscope to convert it to a true direction indicator. The indications of the master gyrocompass may be repeated in various parts of the craftfor example, in bearing repeaters, steering repeaters, and radar repeaters.

The azimuth circle is an important auxiliary device used for indicating the azimuth, or bearing, of an object, its direction measured from the north point. It is a graduated ring with sight vanes that is designed to fit snugly over a compass or a compass repeater; it provides a means of taking bearings of both terrestrial objects and celestial bodies.

An instrument known as the log is used to determine either the speed of a ship or the distance travelled through the water, or both simultaneously. Various types of logs are used, some operating on a simple mechanical principle and others based on ingenious electromechanical techniques. The airspeed indicator fulfils the same function in an aircraft.

To determine water depth a navigator uses either the lead or the echo sounder. The lead, which consists essentially of a lead weight at the end of a suitably marked line, is used in coastal or shallow waters under conditions of low visibility. The echo sounder, which is found on almost all seagoing ships, indicates the depth of water by measuring the time interval between the emission of a sonic or ultrasonic signal and the return of its echo from the bottom. Aircraft height is determined by a barometric altimeter, a radio altimeter, or an inertial system.

The plotting equipment used by the navigator resembles to a certain extent the tools used in drafting. Dividers for measuring distances, compasses for drawing circles, plotters, protractors, and universal draughting machines are the rudimentary tools commonly found on the chart table of a ship.

For celestial navigation the navigator uses a sextant and a chronometer. The sextant is a double-reflecting instrument that measures the angle between two objects by bringing into coincidence rays of light received directly from one object and by reflection from the other. Its principal use is to determine the altitude (in degrees of arc) of celestial bodies above the horizon. The chronometer is a very accurate timepiece with a nearly constant rate of daily gain or loss. It is set to the time of a standard meridian, usually that of the former Greenwich Observatory, in London, and makes possible the determination of longitude at sea. Its daily rate of gain or loss is checked by radio time signals broadcast from various countries. (See Clocks and Watches). In addition to these instruments, most modern ships use several electronic navigation devices (see Electronic Navigation below).

V NAVIGATION IN PILOTAGE WATERS

Piloting is the most exacting form of navigation because it entails the movement of ships under many potentially dangerous conditions. The greatest care and exactness are necessary for success in piloting, especially in poorly charted coastal waters or under unfavourable weather and visibility conditions. One of the chief concerns of the navigator in pilotage waters, where traffic is heavier than at sea, is to avoid collision with other ships.

A Line of Position

A basic concept in piloting is known as the line of position, a line indicating a series of possible positions of a craft and determined usually by observation. The line may be straight, curved, or irregular, as when the line produced by plotting a series of soundings taken over a period. One line of position is not sufficient to determine the exact position of a ship. The point of intersection of two or more lines of position, taken simultaneously or adjusted for time lapse, is a positive position known as a fix. The navigator in pilotage waters strives constantly to plot such intersections of lines. Fixes then serve as reliable guideposts for future movements or decisions.

Visual piloting is accomplished generally by employing an azimuth circle on a gyrocompass repeater to take bearings of identifiable and chartered objects. These bearings are then plotted on a chart of the area to indicate graphically the position of the ship. A single navigational object may define a fix if both a bearing and a range can be taken simultaneously by the use of a rangefinder in addition to the azimuth circle, or by radar. In cases where only one line of position is available without an accompanying range, the navigator must resort to the use of the so-called estimated position, which is not as reliable as a fix but is more reliable than a dead-reckoning position. An estimated position requires continued extra caution in the navigation process until a fix is determined.

A line of position may be obtained by any one of the following methods: a range within which two known fixed objects appear in line, and the ship is placed somewhere on this line; a compass bearing of an object observed visually or by radar; a range obtained by rangefinder or by radar; a single sounding or a series of soundings of the bottom (usually referred to as a chain of soundings); a horizontal angle, measured by a sextant, between two known objects; a vertical angle, measured by a sextant, of an object of known height; an echo of the ship's whistle or siren; a radio direction-finder bearing; lines of position derived from one of several electronic systems; and astronomical lines of position.

B Fixing the Position

Any combination of these methods of determining a line of position permits a fix. Fixes may be arrived at by cross bearings, by finding the bearing and distance of the same object, by a bearing and a sounding taken simultaneously, by horizontal sextant angles, and by two bearings of a single object taken at different times but adjusted for time lapse when plotted. The last-mentioned technique is known as a running fix.

In addition to these graphic methods, a ship's position can be deduced by the use of horizontal angles in conjunction with a three-arm protractor. Such a protractor consists of a circle, graduated in degrees, to which is attached one fixed arm and two arms pivoted at the centre. If horizontal angles taken on three identifiable fixed objects shown on a chart are set on the protractor and the latter is positioned on the chart with the objects lined up on the three arms, the position of the ship is fixed at the centre. Aids to navigation may consist of various types of beacons, buoys, lighthouses, and light vessels; their characteristic shapes and colours provide at least partial daytime identification, and characteristic phases and colours of lights provide identification at night. Where these aids are absent, the navigator must resort to taking bearings of mountain peaks and of chartered structures such as water tanks or church spires, and taking tangent bearings of islands or points of land.

C Tides, Tidal Streams, and Ocean Currents

The practice of navigation is complicated by the presence of tidal effects and ocean currents. These effects, which may be favourable or unfavourable, tend to deflect the ship from its charted course and to reduce or increase its speed. A comparison of dead-reckoning positions and fixes reveals the extent of such effects and often helps the navigator to predict and adjust for future influences. See Ocean and Oceanography; Tide; Wind.

VI CELESTIAL NAVIGATION

In this classic method, used most commonly in the open sea, the navigator measures the positions of celestial bodies. Stars have been identified and grouped into constellations, partly for this purpose, since ancient times (see Astronomy). Celestial navigation makes possible voyages across thousands of kilometres of unmarked water, but its one great limitation is that poor visibility, caused by clouds, fog, rain, snow, mist, or haze, may prevent the essential sightings of celestial bodies.

A coordinate system similar to the Earth's coordinates of latitude and longitude has been adopted to describe the positions of heavenly bodies. This system consists of declination, which corresponds to terrestrial latitude, and hour angle, which corresponds to terrestrial longitude. For practical purposes of navigation, the positions of the stars relative to one another are regarded as fixed on the celestial sphere; the motions of the Sun, the Moon, and the planets are indicated in this system as a mean rate of progression across the sphere.

The principal maritime nations publish yearly nautical almanacs that tabulate the coordinates at any particular time of the celestial bodies used in navigation. The tables also provide other pertinent astronomical information.

To use the nautical almanac, the navigator must establish the time of an observation accurately by means of the chronometer. The measurement of time is based on the rotation of the Earth and the consequent apparent rotation of celestial bodies around the Earth. In navigation, the primary system of time is based on the apparent movement of the Sun westward at 15° of longitude per hour. Thus, a time difference is established between two places on the surface of the Earth based on their difference of longitude. The longitude of New York, for example, is roughly 75° west and that of Greenwich is 0°. New York is therefore 5 hours to the west of Greenwich.

The navigational triangle, or astronomical triangle, which constitutes the most important part of celestial navigation, is a spherical triangle, the three points of which represent the position of the observer, the geographical position of the celestial body, and the geographical pole that is nearer to the observer. The solution of such a triangle provides the basis for the derivation of an astronomical line of position. Spherical trigonometry was formerly required to solve such a problem, but this triangle can today be solved simply by using the nautical almanac in conjunction with one of several short tabular methods. The tabular methods include precomputed solutions of the astronomical triangle to accommodate any position of the observer and any celestial body observed.

In the most modern approach to celestial navigation, the circle of equal altitude and the astronomical position line are used in conjunction with the solution of the navigational triangle. The circle of equal altitude is a circle on the surface of the Earth, and at every point on this circle the altitude of a given celestial body is the same at a given instant.

VII ELECTRONIC NAVIGATION

In this method of navigation, electronic devices use the information provided by radio or radar to chart the position and route of a craft. Electronic and precision aids have increased the safety of navigation by supplying important information rapidly during periods of poor visibility, particularly in dangerous and congested waters. The modern navigator makes wide use of these devices, both in pilotage waters and in the open sea. Radio provides the navigator with auxiliary information, including time signals, regular weather reports, storm warnings, and general navigational warnings concerning such hazards as derelict ships, extinguished navigational lights, and buoys adrift.

Radio was first used as an aid to navigation in the early 1900s, and in the 1930s aircraft were fitted with communications equipment to enable them to receive navigational direction from the ground; direction-finding loops enabled them to take bearings on ground transmitters. One basis for modern navigational aids is radio direction-finding, used in one of two ways: an aircraft or ship takes bearings on fixed transmitters on the ground and fixes its position relative to two or more of them; or bearings taken by ground stations on a transmission from an aircraft or a ship are centrally correlated and a position is passed on to the craft. The principal electronic devices and systems are described below.

A Direction-Finder (D/F)

The radio direction-finder was the first navigational aid to come into general use. If the bearings of two transmitters with known locations can be measured, the position of the receiver may be determined. In its simplest form, a modern D/F consists of a conventional radio receiver with an antenna in the form of a coil of wire called a loop. Such a loop antenna has strongly directional properties; if it is mounted so that its axis points directly to a radio station, it will receive no signal whatsoever from that station; if it is mounted so that the plane of the loop passes through the radio station, it receives a strong signal. At intermediate positions the signal is intermediate in strength. In practice, a known station is tuned in, and then the loop is rotated until no signal is heard; this position is called the aural null. The axis of the loop must then point directly towards (and away from) the station; this direction is plotted by the navigator as a line of position.

An automatic direction-finder (ADF) has a motor that rotates the loop antenna, keeping the loop always in the null position. The motor also actuates a needle, similar in appearance to a compass needle, that indicates the position of the loop. This so-called radio compass points not towards north but towards whichever station is tuned in on the loop antenna. Such direction-finders can operate on any radio station broadcasting a continuous carrier on a frequency that the radio set can receive. Virtually all aircraft and ships are equipped with D/F equipment. Ground D/F stations have also been installed to aid lost aircraft. Radio D/F equipment is also used in police work and counter-espionage to locate hidden radio stations.

VIII RADIO RANGES

Radio ranges and D/F were the principal radio navigation aids in general use before World War II. They operate on low frequencies (200 to 415 kilohertz) and so are subject to bending, night effect, and other anomalies.

A radio range consists of two pairs of antennas broadcasting in Morse code, one broadcasting the letter A (dot, dash), and the other broadcasting the letter N (dash, dot). The timing of the two letters is such that the space between letters just equals the time of a dash, while the space between the two parts of a letter just equals the time of a dot. The patterns thus interlock so that if both are heard at once, the sound is continuous. The transmission pattern from each pair of antennas is directional, and is projected into two opposite quadrants, each covering about 90°. An aircraft in one of the quadrants will hear only a single letter, either A or N; however, if it is on the borderline between the two quadrants, the navigator will hear the continuous tone, which is called the on-course signal. This borderline is called the beam, and is generally about 3° wide. Directly above the range is an area in which no signal is heard. This area is called the cone of silence and is small at low altitudes, but increases in size at higher altitudes.

A Radio Beacons

A beacon is a radio station that is equipped with a nondirectional antenna; it is used principally for homing. Low-powered beacons are called locators and are used in conjunction with radio compasses.

B Omnirange or Omnidirectional Range (MOR or VOR)

Omnirange is, in effect, a radio range with an infinite number of beams (or, in practice, 360 beams). Omnirange stations are operated on both VHF (very high frequency) and LF (low frequency): VHF omnirange is called VOR; the designation of low-frequency omnirange, originally LOR, was changed to MOR to avoid confusion with loran (see below). VOR is useful at ranges up to 160 km (100 mi).

The omnirange station has four antennas similar to the antennas of a range station, plus one central antenna. The central antenna broadcasts a continuous reference signal; the other antennas broadcast a variable signal in a beam that is rotated at 1,800 rpm. At the instant when the rotating signal points due north, it is in phase with the reference signal; at all other times it is out of phase with the reference signal by an amount that depends on its direction. The receiver, by measuring this phase difference, can determine its bearing from the station. In practice the omnirange receiver has three dials, one of which can be set manually to any desired course, the second of which tells whether the plane is to the left or right of the course, and the third of which resolves 180° ambiguity by indicating either from or to. Omnirange can be used for homing and for determining a line of position.

C Radio Altimeter

Radio altimeters measure the actual height of the craft above the ground or buildings, whereas ordinary altimeters merely measure air pressure, which can be converted into altitude above ground only if the navigator knows the altitude above sea level of the nearest ground and the barometric reading there at that instant.

D Gee

This radar-like apparatus is a pulsed, three-station, hyperbolic system operating in the 20- to 85-megahertz band and providing navigational fixes slightly beyond optical range. Originally designed in 1937, Gee was not developed until 1940, during World War II, when stations built in Great Britain provided reliable navigational aid to aircraft operating over western Europe. A Gee chain comprises a master transmitter and two slave transmitters, located at distances of 80 to 160 km (50 to 100 mi) from the master. Pulses radiated from the master transmitter trigger pulse responses from the slave transmitters at precisely determined recurrence rates. The times at which the three pulses originate bear a known relationship to one another, and each master-slave time difference measured at the receiver by a cathode ray tube determines a hyperbolic position line. Two position lines derived from the two master-slave combinations provide a fix.

E Long-Range Navigation, or Loran

Loran is the pulsed hyperbolic system developed by the United States during World War II to provide long-range navigation over sea for ships and aircraft. The radio frequency used in loran is approximately 2 megahertz, which permits long-distance reception over oceans but is not effective at long distances over land except at night. Its method of operation is similar to that of Gee, and a single airborne system, using both Gee and loran, was evolved in a cooperative effort between the United States and Great Britain.

F Rebecca-Eureka

This is probably the best-known responder system combination. Rebecca is the airborne interrogator, and Eureka the responder. The system is based on conventional secondary-radar techniques. The interrogating pulses are radiated from a central aerial near the nose of the aircraft, and the reply pulses from the responder are received by two aerials on either side of the nose. The pickup is indicated on a cathode ray tube showing a vertical linear base. The responder pulses show as a horizontal blip across the line base; the range is indicated by the vertical position of the blip.

G Consolan

This system provides coded signals from which the direction of a station can be determined, thus ensuring accurate bearings that are independent of all navigation equipment aboard. Consolan signals are usable up to about 1,300 km (800 mi) or more.

H Global Positioning Systems (GPS)

The Transit system of six polar-orbit satellites provides a worldwide positioning service to military and research ships, but the system will probably be abandoned in the 1990s. The United States Navstar GPS and the former Soviet Union's Glonass system of military satellites are also available for civilian use. The European Space Agency is planning a Navsat system of 18 spacecraft. The International Maritime Satellite Organization (Inmarsat) is also developing a worldwide system of navigational aids. GPS are becoming accepted as the most convenient form of navigation aid for many applications.

I Ground-Controlled Approach (GCA)

GCA is an instrument-approach system consisting of extremely high-precision microwave radar equipment that gives the position of an aircraft in range, azimuth, and elevation. It is primarily designed to bring the pilot through conditions of low visibility to make a normal landing by visual contact. Skilled operation of this system in the aircraft and on the ground permits emergency landing under conditions of nearly zero visibility. GCA uses two sets of radarscopes. One locates planes at a considerable distance, such as 15 to 25 km (about 9 to 15 mi). The controller using this set of scopes maintains communications with planes waiting to land, stacks them (that is, assigns each one to a separate altitude at which it can circle without danger of collision), and brings them in one at a time along a standard approach pattern until they are on the final leg of the approach. On the final approach leg the final-approach controller, using precision scopes, takes control. This controller also broadcasts verbal instructions, principally concerning altitude and lateral deviation from the desired glide path, and guides the pilot virtually to the end of the runway.

J Instrument Landing System (ILS)

This system is primarily designed for instrument approach, but in emergency can be used for landing. It consists essentially of two beams, similar to radio range beams, one horizontal and the other vertical. The horizontal beam (called the localizer) is identical with the visual-aural range (VAR) beam, an ordinary radio range with only two beams instead of four. The vertical beam (called the glide-path) is extremely narrow and is inclined to the ground at an angle of 2.5°. The pilot follows the two beams by means of two pointers, one horizontal and one vertical, on a single dial.

Both ILS and GCA receive valuable supplementary aid from a standardized high-intensity lighting system along the runway and approach so that the pilot can make visual contact with the ground even in extremely bad weather and identify the position of the aircraft in relation to the runway.

Proposals have been made to replace ILS and GCA by a single microwave landing system (MLS). However, there is now some doubt as to whether this system will be implemented or whether it will be overtaken by the use of GPS.

Most radio navigational systems that are currently in use are operated in conjunction with high-speed computers.

IX MISSILE NAVIGATION SYSTEMS

The development of rockets and guided missiles has accelerated the introduction of new and sophisticated electromechanical systems of navigation, including automatic celestial systems, Doppler navigation, and inertial navigation.

The automatic celestial system, known also as the star-tracking system, consists of an electronic device capable of computing a celestial solution and feeding it to a unit designed to track a celestial body or bodies automatically. The tracking unit feeds back the information to computers that then record the actual position of the vehicle.

Doppler navigation, named after the 19th-century Austrian physicist and mathematician Christian Johann Doppler, is concerned primarily with air navigation and involves the analysis of the shift in radio frequency resulting from reflection of radar waves by an approaching or receding object. See Doppler Effect.

Inertial navigation, which is based on inertial guidance, is a self-contained system, wholly independent of either visual or electronic information from outside the craft in which it is operating. This system consists of a certain type of accelerometer, stabilized by gyroscopes that register the magnitude of the acceleration of the craft in both a north-south and an east-west direction from a known starting point; the accelerations are converted by computers into a precise position for the craft. Originally developed for use in long-range ballistic missiles and nuclear-powered submarines, inertial systems now find much wider applications, such as guiding long-range transport aircraft.

Shawnee_B wrote:

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 Looks good. I have lots cast iron decor too. That stuff is also nice plasma cut from steel.

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I don't have anything plasma cut from steel but I agree the cast iron stuff is nice... I just need one more to round it out... 

With regard to the "globe"... you do realize that is not to scale, right? 

I'm not able to connect on any of the things you have mentioned in terms of sailing... don't get that much time! 

Be nice to say I can reasonably see your point with regards to a flat earth but nothing is even remotely quantifiable in the flat earth argument currently...

Stellar007 wrote:

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Shawnee_B wrote:

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 Looks good. I have lots cast iron decor too. That stuff is also nice plasma cut from steel.

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I don't have anything plasma cut from steel but I agree the cast iron stuff is nice... I just need one more to round it out... 

With regard to the "globe"... you do realize that is not to scale, right? 

I'm not able to connect on any of the things you have mentioned in terms of sailing... don't get that much time! 

Be nice to say I can reasonably see your point with regards to a flat earth but nothing is even remotely quantifiable in the flat earth argument currently...

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 Actually everything works on a flat earth model, not so much on a round earth. Flat earth is easily proven and has been. Straight line of sight and the supposed curvature kill round earth theory. Look up on google, how far is the horizon, go ahead. 100+ results, average 2 miles to the horizon. Bullshit and you know it. At 5 miles, the earth is 6 feet below the horizon, exponentially increases, at 10 mi it's 16 feet, at 100 mile it's approx 1.25 miles below the horizon. Catalina island which you have seen from So cal beaches is 26 miles out, it's beach accd to RE theory is 353 feet below the horizon. Yet with binocs you can see the beach. NASA and RE say that is impossible, well go look.

Round earth, spinning 1000 mph, traveling around the sun at 66600mph has NEVER BEEN PROVEN. You like bitcoin. Flat earth Dave has 2 bitcoins for anyone can give one single proof of round earth. Go for it. $78K or so isn't it?

Flat earth was taught even in the 1900's. A 102 year old lady was interviewed who learned flat earth in the 30's.

OK. A round rock, covered in water and an atmosphere around it at what 14.2 psi? What is beyond our atmosphere. They say outer space, a void, a vacuum. If you have air next to a vacuum or void, it dissipates, it finds it's own pressure like water finds it's level. Fill a tire tube with air, it's contained. Now slash that tube. Air stay there like it supposedly does on the earth? An atmosphere around a rock surrounded by a vacuum is a 100% scientific impossibility.

Yo Shawnee,

As mentioned, I can't prove anything except for swallowing the information given to us at school etc etc, & I completely agree that everything in most of the books ever made is designed to misinform, & lead us away from the truth...I have ET craft fly-over & flash-up every-other-night, & have done for at least 4-years now, & there's nothing in any news organization reporting it down here, so our "masters" like to keep us brainwashed...( At least some of us )...

When my work contracts we running regular, I'd have to take a few flights to get to Western Australia, & from Melbourne to Perth, was usually a 3-4 hour flight, depending on wind, traffic, & other stuff...The thing is, you'd leave Melbourne at say mid-day, 12:00, & arrive in Perth after the 3-4 hour flight, & it would be 13:00, Perth time...The same flight back would see you leave Perth at 12:00, & arrive after 3-4 hours at Melbourne at 19:00...So when traveling West, time appears to go slowly, & it's a very-long-day...When you travel East, it's a very short day, time flies away, & yet we have same actual flight-time...

Gravity is a force that's measured at 9.81 Newtons...This means that the earth sees the aeroplane breaking-free of this force, & needs fuel to do so, & have enough speed so that the air-speed can help keep-it flying, whilst reducing fuel consumption once at altitude. The example I posted above of my own flight experience show that actual flying-time remains the same, the difference is in time-zones that one flies through, that are based on Sun position relative to the city in question...

We also know that when we spin an object, say a wheel that has mud on it, the mud will spin-off due to what's called centrifugal force. With regards to our earth, one could describe that the force created due to its rotation, that stops us from flying off due to centrifugal force, is a force that's stronger in this instance than centrifugal force, & is known as centipetal force...Or in earths case we call it gravity...

Whoa !